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References

Updated · 190 sources in 7 groups

Every source cited anywhere on this site, in one list: the sources shown on each calculator page, the citations in each guide, and the references carried in the calculation code itself. There are 190 of them. Each entry links to a DOI, an official publication page, or a stable repository record, never to another calculator site, a blog or an encyclopaedia. Entries are grouped by topic and sorted by author within each group.

Some of what this site shows has no primary source at all: interpretation bands that are conventions, activity multipliers that are industry habit, safety limits we set ourselves. Those are not hidden here; they are labelled in the section that uses them on the methodology page.

BMI and classification (20)

The body mass index itself, the classification systems built on it, and the studies that set out where it works and where it misleads.

  1. Deurenberg P, Deurenberg-Yap M, Guricci S. Asians are different from Caucasians and from each other in their body mass index/body fat per cent relationship. Obes Rev 2002;3:141–6. doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-789X.2002.00065.x
  2. Gadzik J. "How much should I weigh?" Quetelet's equation, upper weight limits, and BMI prime. Conn Med 2006;70:81–8. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16768059/The paper that named BMI Prime. Connecticut Medicine has no DOI for this article; the PubMed record is the stable one.
  3. Harp JB, Hecht L. Obesity in the National Football League. JAMA 2005;293:1061–2. doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.9.1061-bThe clearest published demonstration that BMI misreads heavily muscled athletes.
  4. Keys A, Fidanza F, Karvonen MJ, Kimura N, Taylor HL. Indices of relative weight and obesity. J Chronic Dis 1972;25:329–43. doi.org/10.1016/0021-9681(72)90027-6The paper that named the body mass index and tested it against the alternatives of the day.
  5. Lee YS, Biddle S, Chan MF, et al. Health Promotion Board–Ministry of Health Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obesity. Singapore Med J 2016;57:292–300. doi.org/10.11622/smedj.2016103
  6. Misra A, Chowbey P, Makkar BM, et al. Consensus statement for diagnosis of obesity, abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome for Asian Indians. J Assoc Physicians India 2009;57:163–70. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19582986/
  7. Misra A, Kumar A, Kasliwal A, et al. Revised definition of obesity in Asian Indians living in India. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2025;19:102989. doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2024.102989
  8. NICE. BMI: preventing ill health and premature death in black, Asian and other minority ethnic groups. Public health guideline PH46, 2013. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph46
  9. NICE. Obesity: identification, assessment and management. Clinical guideline CG189, 2014 (updated 2023); superseded by NG246. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg189
  10. NICE. Overweight and obesity management. NICE guideline NG246, published 14 January 2025. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng246The guideline that put waist-to-height ratio alongside BMI in UK practice.
  11. Ode JJ, Pivarnik JM, Reeves MJ, Knous JL. Body mass index as a predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007;39:403–9. doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000247008.19127.3e
  12. Ogawa W, Hirota Y, Miyazaki S, et al.; Japan Society for the Study of Obesity. Definition, criteria, and core concepts of guidelines for the management of obesity disease in Japan. Endocr J 2024;71:223–31. doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ23-0593
  13. Rubino F, Cummings DE, Eckel RH, et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2025;13:221–262. doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00316-4The Lancet Commission that replaced BMI-alone diagnosis with BMI plus a confirmatory measure of fat distribution.
  14. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. Redefining obesity: advancing care for better lives (editorial). Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2025;13:75. doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(25)00004-X
  15. WHO Consultation on Obesity. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. WHO Technical Report Series 894. Geneva, 2000. iris.who.int/handle/10665/42330
  16. WHO Expert Committee. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. WHO Technical Report Series 854. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1995. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241208546
  17. WHO Expert Consultation. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet 2004;363:157–63. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15268-3Retained the international cut-offs and added public-health action points at 23.0, 27.5, 32.5 and 37.5.
  18. WHO/IASO/IOTF. The Asia-Pacific Perspective: Redefining Obesity and its Treatment. Sydney: Health Communications Australia for the WHO Western Pacific Region, 2000. iris.who.int/handle/10665/206936
  19. Winter JE, MacInnis RJ, Wattanapenpaiboon N, Nowson CA. BMI and all-cause mortality in older adults: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;99:875–90. doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.068122
  20. Zhou BF; Cooperative Meta-Analysis Group of the Working Group on Obesity in China. Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certain related diseases in Chinese adults. Biomed Environ Sci 2002;15:83–96. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12046553/

Body fat and composition (32)

Equations that estimate what a body is made of (tape, skinfold, BMI-based and lean-mass predictions) and the weight-for-height formulas that came out of clinical dosing.

  1. American Council on Exercise. Percent body fat resources and calculator (ACE education and resources). www.acefitness.org/education-and-resources/lifestyle/tools-calculators/percent-body-fat-calculator/ACE publishes the essential/athletes/fitness/average/obese category table in the ACE Personal Trainer Manual. We could not find a stable, free ACE page that reproduces the table itself, so the attribution is to the organisation rather than to a citable document, and we treat the bands as a widely used convention, not a validated instrument.
  2. Boer P. Estimated lean body mass as an index for normalization of body fluid volumes in humans. Am J Physiol 1984;247:F632–6. doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1984.247.4.F632
  3. Brožek J, Grande F, Anderson JT, Keys A. Densitometric analysis of body composition: revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1963;110:113–40. doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1963.tb17079.x
  4. Capizzi M, Leto G, Petrone A, et al. Wrist circumference is a clinical marker of insulin resistance in overweight and obese children and adolescents. Circulation 2011;123:1757–62. doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.012898One of the few studies giving wrist circumference any outcome-linked meaning of its own.
  5. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976;16:31–41. doi.org/10.1159/000180580
  6. Deurenberg P, Weststrate JA, Seidell JC. Body mass index as a measure of body fatness: age- and sex-specific prediction formulas. Br J Nutr 1991;65:105–14. doi.org/10.1079/BJN19910073
  7. Devine BJ. Gentamicin therapy. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1974;8:650–5, in the journal's Clinical Pharmacy: Case Studies column. doi.org/10.1177/106002807400801104The origin of the Devine ideal body weight formula, a dosing rule of thumb, never a health target.
  8. Fields JB, Jones MT, Kuhlman NM, Magee MK, Feit A, Jagim AR. Fat-free mass index in a large sample of collegiate American football athletes. Int J Exerc Sci 2024;17:129–39. doi.org/10.70252/FGRL8917
  9. Frisancho AR. New standards of weight and body composition by frame size and height for assessment of nutritional status of adults and the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:808–19. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/40.4.808The tabulation of the Metropolitan Life height and frame data that the elbow-breadth bands come from.
  10. Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB, Heo M, Jebb SA, Murgatroyd PR, Sakamoto Y. Healthy percentage body fat ranges: an approach for developing guidelines based on body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:694–701. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/72.3.694The closest thing to a peer-reviewed derivation of healthy body fat ranges by sex and age. It does not reproduce the ACE bands.
  11. Gómez-Ambrosi J, Silva C, Catalán V, et al. Clinical usefulness of a new equation for estimating body fat (CUN-BAE). Diabetes Care 2012;35:383–8. doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1334
  12. Green B, Duffull SB. What is the best size descriptor to use for pharmacokinetic studies in the obese? Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004;58:119–33. doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004.02157.x
  13. Hodgdon JA, Beckett MB. Prediction of percent body fat for U.S. Navy men and women from body circumferences and height. Naval Health Research Center Reports 84-11 and 84-29, 1984. apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA143890
  14. Hodgdon JA, Friedl KE. Development of the DoD body composition estimation equations. Naval Health Research Center Technical Document 99-2B, 1999. apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA370158
  15. Hume R. Prediction of lean body mass from height and weight. J Clin Pathol 1966;19:389–91. doi.org/10.1136/jcp.19.4.389
  16. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research. Body Composition and Physical Performance: Applications for the Military Services. Washington DC: National Academies Press, 1990. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK235939/Carries the cross-validation of the Navy circumference equations.
  17. Jackson AS, Pollock ML, Ward A. Generalized equations for predicting body density of women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980;12:175–82. doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198023000-00009
  18. Jackson AS, Pollock ML. Generalized equations for predicting body density of men. Br J Nutr 1978;40:497–504. doi.org/10.1079/BJN19780152
  19. Jahangiri Noudeh Y, Hadaegh F, Vatankhah N, et al. Wrist circumference as a novel predictor of diabetes and prediabetes: results of cross-sectional and 8.8-year follow-up studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:777–84. doi.org/10.1210/jc.2012-2416
  20. James WPT (comp.). Research on Obesity: a report of the DHSS/MRC group. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1976. wellcomecollection.org/works/jp3uwk2uThe origin of the James lean body mass equations. A government report with no DOI; the Wellcome Collection catalogue record is the stable one.
  21. Janmahasatian S, Duffull SB, Ash S, Ward LC, Byrne NM, Green B. Quantification of lean bodyweight. Clin Pharmacokinet 2005;44:1051–65. doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200544100-00004
  22. Kouri EM, Pope HG, Katz DL, Oliva P. Fat-free mass index in users and nonusers of anabolic-androgenic steroids. Clin J Sport Med 1995;5:223–8. doi.org/10.1097/00042752-199510000-00003The source of the fat-free mass index and of the widely quoted ceiling of about 25 in drug-free men. It studied men only.
  23. Lemmens HJM, Brodsky JB, Bernstein DP. Estimating ideal body weight: a new formula. Obes Surg 2005;15:1082–3. doi.org/10.1381/0960892054621350
  24. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. 1983 Metropolitan height and weight tables. Stat Bull Metrop Life Insur Co 1983;64:3–9. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6623350/The insurance tables the small, medium and large frame categories originate in. They were never a health standard.
  25. Miller DR, Carlson JD, Lloyd BJ, Day BJ. Determining ideal body weight (and mass). Am J Hosp Pharm 1983;40:1622–5. doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/40.10.1622a
  26. Nyman U, Björk J, Aronsen T, et al. James lean body weight formula is not appropriate for determining CT contrast media dose in patients with high body mass index. Radiology 2016;278:956–7. doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2016152031Documents the James (1976) equation and the reason it drifts low at high body weight: the squared weight-to-height term.
  27. Pai MP, Paloucek FP. The origin of the "ideal" body weight equations. Ann Pharmacother 2000;34:1066–9. doi.org/10.1345/aph.19381The published account of where the Hamwi, Devine, Robinson and Miller formulas came from. Hamwi's 1964 book chapter has no DOI or stable open record; this review is the citable source for it.
  28. Prado CMM, Baracos VE, McCargar LJ, et al. Body composition as an independent determinant of 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy toxicity. Clin Cancer Res 2007;13:3264–8. doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-06-3067
  29. Robinson JD, Lupkiewicz SM, Palenik L, Lopez LM, Ariet M. Determination of ideal body weight for drug dosage calculations. Am J Hosp Pharm 1983;40:1016–9. doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/40.6.1016
  30. Schutz Y, Kyle UUG, Pichard C. Fat-free mass index and fat mass index percentiles in Caucasians aged 18–98 y. Int J Obes 2002;26:953–60. doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802037The one large population reference for fat-free mass index in both sexes. It reports percentiles, not the named interpretation bands the fitness world uses.
  31. Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods (1961). Reprinted in Nutrition 1993;9:480–91. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8286893/
  32. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301–8. doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200005043421801Why the Devine equation still matters clinically: ventilator tidal volumes are set per kilogram of predicted body weight.

Fat distribution (18)

Waist-based ratios, ethnicity-specific thresholds and the geometric shape indices that describe where fat sits rather than how much there is.

  1. Alberti KGMM, Zimmet P, Shaw J. Metabolic syndrome: a new world-wide definition. A consensus statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabet Med 2006;23:469–80. doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01858.x
  2. Ashwell M, Gibson S. Waist-to-height ratio as an indicator of "early health risk": simpler and more predictive than using a "matrix" based on BMI and waist circumference. BMJ Open 2016;6:e010159. doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010159
  3. Bergman RN, Stefanovski D, Buchanan TA, et al. A better index of body adiposity. Obesity 2011;19:1083–9. doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.38
  4. Browning LM, Hsieh SD, Ashwell M. A systematic review of waist-to-height ratio as a screening tool for the prediction of cardiovascular disease and diabetes: 0.5 could be a suitable global boundary value. Nutr Res Rev 2010;23:247–69. doi.org/10.1017/S0954422410000144
  5. Corrêa MM, Facchini LA, Thumé E, et al. External validation of the relative fat mass (RFM) index in adults from north-west Mexico using different reference methods. PLoS One 2019;14:e0226767. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226767
  6. Greendale GA, Sternfeld B, Huang M, et al. Changes in regional fat distribution and anthropometric measures across the menopause transition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021;106:2520–34. doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgab389
  7. International Diabetes Federation. The IDF consensus worldwide definition of the metabolic syndrome. Brussels: IDF, 2006. idf.org/media/uploads/2023/05/attachments-30.pdfThe source of the ethnicity-specific waist circumference thresholds.
  8. Krakauer NY, Krakauer JC. A new body shape index predicts mortality hazard independently of body mass index. PLoS One 2012;7:e39504. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039504
  9. Nevill AM, Leahy GD, Mayhew J, Sandercock GRH, Myers TD, Duncan MJ. "At risk" waist-to-height ratio cut-off points recently adopted by NICE and US Department of Defense will unfairly penalize shorter adults. What is the solution? Obes Res Clin Pract 2023;17:1–8. doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2023.01.002The strongest published objection to a single 0.5 boundary. We show it because it argues against a threshold we use.
  10. Ross R, Neeland IJ, Yamashita S, et al. Waist circumference as a vital sign in clinical practice: a Consensus Statement from the IAS and ICCR Working Group on Visceral Obesity. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2020;16:177–89. doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0310-7
  11. Sahakyan KR, Somers VK, Rodriguez-Escudero JP, et al. Normal-weight central obesity: implications for total and cardiovascular mortality. Ann Intern Med 2015;163:827–35. doi.org/10.7326/M14-2525
  12. Shungin D, Winkler TW, Croteau-Chonka DC, et al. New genetic loci link adipose and insulin biology to body fat distribution. Nature 2015;518:187–96. doi.org/10.1038/nature14132
  13. Thomas DM, Bredlau C, Bosy-Westphal A, et al. Relationships between body roundness with body fat and visceral adipose tissue emerging from a new geometrical model. Obesity 2013;21:2264–71. doi.org/10.1002/oby.20408
  14. Valdez R. A simple model-based index of abdominal adiposity. J Clin Epidemiol 1991;44:955–6. doi.org/10.1016/0895-4356(91)90059-I
  15. WHO. Waist circumference and waist–hip ratio: report of a WHO expert consultation, Geneva, 8–11 December 2008. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241501491
  16. Woolcott OO, Bergman RN. Relative fat mass (RFM) as a new estimator of whole-body fat percentage: a cross-sectional study in American adult individuals. Sci Rep 2018;8:10980. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-29362-1
  17. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ôunpuu S, et al. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study (INTERHEART). Lancet 2005;366:1640–9. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67663-5
  18. Zhang X, Ma N, Lin Q, et al. Body roundness index and all-cause mortality among US adults. JAMA Netw Open 2024;7:e2415051. doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.15051The NHANES analysis the body roundness bands follow. Mortality was lowest in the middle of the distribution and higher at both ends.

Energy and intake (49)

Resting metabolism, total daily expenditure, the energy content of weight change, and the protein, macronutrient and fluid reference intakes.

  1. Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, et al. Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. J Physiol 2013;591:2319–31. doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2012.244897Moderate doses every few hours outperformed both small-frequent and large-infrequent patterns at an identical daily total.
  2. Bauer J, Biolo G, Cederholm T, et al. Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: a position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2013;14:542–59. doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2013.05.021
  3. Brown MJ, Ferruzzi MG, Nguyen ML, et al. Carotenoid bioavailability is higher from salads ingested with full-fat than with fat-reduced salad dressings as measured with electrochemical detection. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:396–403. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/80.2.396Absorption evidence behind the dietary fat floor; it is about carotenoids specifically, not all fat-soluble vitamins.
  4. Byrne NM, Sainsbury A, King NA, Hills AP, Wood RE. Intermittent energy restriction improves weight loss efficiency in obese men: the MATADOR study. Int J Obes 2018;42:129–38. doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2017.206One trial, men with obesity, one protocol. It is the best controlled evidence for diet breaks and it is not more than that.
  5. Cunningham JJ. A reanalysis of the factors influencing basal metabolic rate in normal adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1980;33:2372–4. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/33.11.2372
  6. Devries MC, Sithamparapillai A, Brimble KS, Banfield L, Morton RW, Phillips SM. Changes in kidney function do not differ between healthy adults consuming higher- compared with lower- or normal-protein diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Nutr 2018;148:1760–75. doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy197
  7. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for protein. EFSA Journal 2012;10:2557. doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2557
  8. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for water. EFSA J 2010;8:1459. doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1459Adequate intakes of total water: 2.0 L/day for women and 2.5 L/day for men, from drinks and food together.
  9. FAO/WHO/UNU. Human energy requirements, chapter 5: energy requirements of adults, the physical activity level classification. Rome, 2004. www.fao.org/4/y5686e/y5686e07.htmThe framework the activity multipliers follow. It defines lifestyle bands, not the specific 1.2–1.9 numbers in common use.
  10. FAO/WHO/UNU. Human energy requirements: report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. Rome, 2004. www.fao.org/4/y5686e/y5686e00.htm
  11. Fothergill E, Guo J, Howard L, et al. Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after the Biggest Loser competition. Obesity 2016;24:1612–9. doi.org/10.1002/oby.21538Metabolic adaptation of 499 kcal per day, plus or minus 207, still present at six years. An extreme population; not a template for ordinary weight loss.
  12. Frankenfield D, Roth-Yousey L, Compher C. Comparison of predictive equations for resting metabolic rate in healthy nonobese and obese adults: a systematic review. J Am Diet Assoc 2005;105:775–89. doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.005Why Mifflin–St Jeor is the default: it was the most reliable of the equations tested.
  13. Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes PE, Sundgot-Borgen J. Effect of nutritional intervention on body composition and performance in elite athletes. Eur J Sport Sci 2013;13:295–303. doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2011.643923Compared ad libitum gain against a controlled surplus of roughly 0.35% of bodyweight per week in athletes.
  14. Hall KD, Bemis T, Brychta R, et al. Calorie for calorie, dietary fat restriction results in more body fat loss than carbohydrate restriction in people with obesity. Cell Metab 2015;22:427–36. doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.021
  15. Hall KD, Sacks G, Chandramohan D, et al. Quantification of the effect of energy imbalance on bodyweight. Lancet 2011;378:826–37. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60812-XThe modern correction to the 7,700 kcal per kilogram rule: weight loss decelerates as expenditure falls with mass.
  16. Harris JA, Benedict FG. A biometric study of human basal metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1918;4:370–3 (the full data appeared in the 1919 Carnegie Institution monograph). doi.org/10.1073/pnas.4.12.370
  17. Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014;11:20. doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-11-20Supports a loss rate of roughly 0.5–1% of bodyweight per week for preserving lean mass. It is not a clinical standard.
  18. Helms ER, Zinn C, Rowlands DS, Brown SR. A systematic review of dietary protein during caloric restriction in resistance trained lean athletes: a case for higher intakes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2014;24:127–38. doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0054
  19. Hew-Butler T, Rosner MH, Fowkes-Godek S, et al. Statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, Carlsbad, California, 2015. Clin J Sport Med 2015;25:303–20. doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000000221Why a fluid target is a ceiling as well as a floor: drinking past thirst during endurance exercise can be dangerous.
  20. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington DC: National Academies Press, 2005. doi.org/10.17226/10490Sets the acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges and the fibre adequate intake of 14 g per 1,000 kcal.
  21. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington DC: National Academies Press, 2005 (the 2004 panel report). doi.org/10.17226/10925Adequate intakes of total water: 2.7 L/day for women and 3.7 L/day for men, of which roughly 80% arrives as drinks.
  22. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes summary tables (fibre adequate intake 38 g/day for men, 25 g/day for women). Washington DC: National Academies Press. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56068/table/summarytables.t4/
  23. Iraki J, Fitschen P, Espinar S, Helms E. Nutrition recommendations for bodybuilders in the off-season: a narrative review. Sports 2019;7:154. doi.org/10.3390/sports7070154Sets out the 10–20% surplus and 1.6–2.2 g/kg protein rails the lean-gain planner encodes.
  24. Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2017;14:20. doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
  25. Johnston BC, Kanters S, Bandayrel K, et al. Comparison of weight loss among named diet programs in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2014;312:923–33. doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.10397
  26. Leibel RL, Rosenbaum M, Hirsch J. Changes in energy expenditure resulting from altered body weight. N Engl J Med 1995;332:621–8. doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199503093321001Total energy expenditure fell by 6 kcal per kilogram of fat-free mass per day in never-obese subjects and 8 in subjects with obesity, at 10 per cent or more below initial weight.
  27. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, Jensen MD. Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans. Science 1999;283:212–4. doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.212Why two people at the same stated activity level can differ by hundreds of calories a day.
  28. Lichtman SW, Pestone M, Dowling H, et al. Discrepancy between self-reported and actual caloric intake and exercise in obese subjects. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1893–8. doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199212313272701Establishes that under-reporting is systematic rather than random, which is why a consistent logging bias calibrates out and an inconsistent one does not.
  29. Lim MT, Pan BJ, Toh DWK, Sutanto CN, Kim JE. Animal protein versus plant protein in supporting lean mass and muscle strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients 2021;13:661. doi.org/10.3390/nu13020661
  30. Magkos F, Fraterrigo G, Yoshino J, et al. Effects of moderate and subsequent progressive weight loss on metabolic function and adipose tissue biology in humans with obesity. Cell Metab 2016;23:591–601. doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2016.02.005The evidence behind the 5% milestone: measurable metabolic benefit at a loss most people can actually reach.
  31. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Cordery PA, et al. A randomized trial to assess the potential of different beverages to affect hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index. Am J Clin Nutr 2016;103:717–23. doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.114769
  32. Mifflin MD, St Jeor ST, Hill LA, Scott BJ, Daugherty SA, Koh YO. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51:241–7. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241
  33. Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med 2018;52:376–84. doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608Found benefit plateauing near 1.6 g/kg/day, with a confidence interval reaching about 2.2 g/kg.
  34. Müller MJ, Bosy-Westphal A. Adaptive thermogenesis with weight loss in humans. Obesity 2013;21:218–28. doi.org/10.1002/oby.20027The measured size of adaptive thermogenesis is highly sensitive to the prediction equation, the timing of measurement and the body composition method.
  35. Owen OE, Holup JL, D'Alessio DA, et al. A reappraisal of the caloric requirements of men. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;46:875–85. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/46.6.875
  36. Owen OE, Kavle E, Owen RS, et al. A reappraisal of caloric requirements in healthy women. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:1–19. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/44.1.1
  37. Pontzer H, Yamada Y, Sagayama H, et al. Daily energy expenditure through the human life course. Science 2021;373:808–12. doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5017Size-adjusted expenditure is stable from about 20 to 60 years, the evidence against "your metabolism dies at 30".
  38. Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL. Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. Int J Obes 2010;34:S47–55. doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.184
  39. Roza AM, Shizgal HM. The Harris Benedict equation reevaluated: resting energy requirements and the body cell mass. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:168–82. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/40.1.168
  40. Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ, et al. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. N Engl J Med 2009;360:859–73. doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0804748
  41. Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfeld NS. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007;39:377–90. doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e31802ca597Reports typical sweat rates of 0.5–2.0 L per hour of exercise.
  42. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2018;15:10. doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1
  43. Slater GJ, Dieter BP, Marsh DJ, Helms ER, Shaw G, Iraki J. Is an energy surplus required to maximize skeletal muscle hypertrophy associated with resistance training? Front Nutr 2019;6:131. doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00131
  44. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Norton LE. Metabolic adaptation to weight loss: implications for the athlete. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014;11:7. doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-11-7
  45. Urban LE, Dallal GE, Robinson LM, Ausman LM, Saltzman E, Roberts SB. The accuracy of stated energy contents of reduced-energy, commercially prepared foods. J Am Diet Assoc 2010;110:116–23. doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2009.10.003Measured energy averaged 18 per cent above stated values for restaurant foods and 8 per cent above for supermarket frozen meals.
  46. Whittaker J, Wu K. Low-fat diets and testosterone in men: systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021;210:105878. doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105878Reports a standardised mean difference of -0.38 (95% CI -0.75 to -0.01), not a percentage. Any claim of an X per cent drop in testosterone is unsupported by this paper.
  47. WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation. Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. WHO Technical Report Series 935. Geneva, 2007. iris.who.int/handle/10665/43411The safe level of protein intake of 0.83 g/kg/day, a floor for adequacy, not a training target.
  48. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, et al. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011;34:1481–6. doi.org/10.2337/dc10-2415
  49. Wishnofsky M. Caloric equivalents of gained or lost weight. Am J Clin Nutr 1958;6:542–6. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/6.5.542The origin of the 3,500 kcal per pound (7,700 kcal per kilogram) planning figure. Read it alongside Hall 2011.

Children and pregnancy (15)

Growth-reference data and the guidance that governs how a child's BMI and a pregnancy's weight gain are read. Every one of these is a clinical instrument.

  1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee Opinion No. 548: Weight gain during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2013;121:210–12. doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000425668.87506.4c
  2. CDC. About child and teen BMI: weight status categories for ages 2 to 19. www.cdc.gov/bmi/child-teen-calculator/The published definitions of the 5th, 85th and 95th percentile bands.
  3. CDC. BMI-for-age growth chart percentile data files (extended, 2022 release of the 2000 reference). www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/percentile_data_files.htmThe L, M and S parameters the child BMI calculator reads. No number in that tool is hand-typed.
  4. CDC. Growth charts and extended BMI-for-age growth charts. National Center for Health Statistics. www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/cdc-growth-charts.htm
  5. CDC. Stature-for-age and weight-for-age LMS parameters, 2000 growth charts. National Center for Health Statistics. www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/data/zscore/statage.csvThe published L, M and S values this site interpolates for stature-for-age percentiles. Weight-for-age uses wtage.csv from the same directory.
  6. de Ferranti SD, Steinberger J, Ameduri R, et al. Cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk pediatric patients: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019;139:e603–34. doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000618
  7. Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington DC: National Academies Press, 2009. doi.org/10.17226/12584The ranges obstetric care still uses. It gives no twin range for an underweight pre-pregnancy BMI, and neither do we.
  8. Kelly AS, Barlow SE, Rao G, et al. Severe obesity in children and adolescents: identification, associated health risks, and treatment approaches, a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013;128:1689–1712. doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182a5cfb3The source of the class 2 and class 3 thresholds at 120% and 140% of the 95th percentile.
  9. Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Guo SS, et al. 2000 CDC growth charts for the United States: methods and development. Vital Health Stat 11 2002;246:1–190. www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_11/sr11_246.pdfSets out the LMS method used to turn a BMI into a z-score and a percentile.
  10. NICE. Maternal and child nutrition: nutrition and weight management in pregnancy, and nutrition in children up to 5 years. NICE guideline NG247, 2025. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng247
  11. Skinner AC, Ravanbakht SN, Skelton JA, Perrin EM, Armstrong SC. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity in US children, 1999–2016. Pediatrics 2018;141:e20173459. doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3459
  12. Tanner JM, Goldstein H, Whitehouse RH. Standards for children's height at ages 2-9 years allowing for height of parents. Arch Dis Child 1970;45(244):755–62. doi.org/10.1136/adc.45.244.755The mid-parental target height method. The paper itself does not state the plus or minus 8.5 cm band usually attributed to it.
  13. WHO. Growth reference data for 5–19 years: BMI-for-age. www.who.int/tools/growth-reference-data-for-5to19-years/indicators/bmi-for-ageThe alternative reference to the CDC charts. The two disagree, which is why we name which one we used.
  14. WHO. WHO recommendations on antenatal care for a positive pregnancy experience. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549912
  15. Zeevi D, Ben Yehuda A, Nathan D, Zangen D, Kruglyak L. Accurate prediction of children's target height from their mid-parental height. Children (Basel) 2024;11(8):916. doi.org/10.3390/children11080916Source of the plus or minus 8.5 cm band, and of Tanner's later wider bands of 9 cm for girls and 10 cm for boys.

Fitness (37)

Maximum heart rate and training zones, one-rep-max prediction, the metabolic cost of activity, and the military body composition standards.

  1. Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Herrmann SD, et al. 2011 Compendium of Physical Activities: a second update of codes and MET values. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011;43:1575–81. doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31821ece12
  2. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 11th edition. acsm.org/education-resources/books/guidelines-exercise-testing-prescription/The source of the percentage-of-maximum and heart-rate-reserve intensity classifications. It is a book, so the link is to the publisher's official page rather than to a DOI.
  3. American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand: progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009;41:687–708. doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181915670
  4. Bouchard C, An P, Rice T, et al. Familial aggregation of VO2max response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study. J Appl Physiol 1999;87(3):1003–8. doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.3.1003
  5. Brzycki M. Strength testing: predicting a one-rep max from reps-to-fatigue. J Phys Educ Recreat Dance 1993;64:88–90. doi.org/10.1080/07303084.1993.10606684
  6. Byrne NM, Hills AP, Hunter GR, Weinsier RL, Schutz Y. Metabolic equivalent: one size does not fit all. J Appl Physiol 2005;99(3):1112–19. doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00023.2004
  7. Compendium of Physical Activities: the maintained MET value tables (Adult, Older Adult and Wheelchair compendia). pacompendium.com/
  8. Consortium for Health and Military Performance (Uniformed Services University). How the military measures body composition. www.hprc-online.org/physical-fitness/training-performance/how-military-measures-body-composition
  9. Cooper KH. A means of assessing maximal oxygen intake: correlation between field and treadmill testing. JAMA 1968;203(3):201–4. doi.org/10.1001/jama.1968.03140030033008
  10. Fox SM 3rd, Naughton JP, Haskell WL. Physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease. Ann Clin Res 1971;3:404–32. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4945367/The origin of "220 minus age", which the authors offered as a rough fit rather than a validated equation.
  11. Gellish RL, Goslin BR, Olson RE, McDonald A, Russi GD, Moudgil VK. Longitudinal modeling of the relationship between age and maximal heart rate. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007;39:822–9. doi.org/10.1097/mss.0b013e31803349c6
  12. Grgic J, Lazinica B, Schoenfeld BJ, Pedisic Z. Test-retest reliability of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength assessment: a systematic review. Sports Med Open 2020;6:31. doi.org/10.1186/s40798-020-00260-z
  13. Herrmann SD, Willis EA, Ainsworth BE, et al. 2024 Adult Compendium of Physical Activities: a third update of the energy costs of human activities. J Sport Health Sci 2024;13:6–12. doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2023.10.010
  14. Jetté M, Sidney K, Blümchen G. Metabolic equivalents (METS) in exercise testing, exercise prescription, and evaluation of functional capacity. Clin Cardiol 1990;13:555–65. doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960130809The definition of one MET as 3.5 ml of oxygen per kilogram per minute.
  15. Kaminsky LA, Arena R, Myers J, et al. Updated reference standards for cardiorespiratory fitness measured with cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Mayo Clin Proc 2022;97(2):285–93. doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.08.020
  16. Kaminsky LA, Arena R, Myers J. Reference standards for cardiorespiratory fitness measured with cardiopulmonary exercise testing: data from the Fitness Registry and the Importance of Exercise National Database. Mayo Clin Proc 2015;90(11):1515–23. doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.07.026
  17. Karvonen MJ, Kentala E, Mustala O. The effects of training on heart rate: a longitudinal study. Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn 1957;35:307–15. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13470504/
  18. Kline GM, Porcari JP, Hintermeister R, et al. Estimation of VO2max from a one-mile track walk, gender, age, and body weight. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987;19(3):253–9. doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198706000-00012
  19. Kodama S, Saito K, Tanaka S, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2009;301(19):2024–35. doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.681
  20. LaForgia J, Withers RT, Gore CJ. Effects of exercise intensity and duration on the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. J Sports Sci 2006;24:1247–64. doi.org/10.1080/02640410600552064
  21. Larsen GE, George JD, Alexander JL, Fellingham GW, Aldana SG, Parcell AC. Prediction of maximum oxygen consumption from walking, jogging, or running. Res Q Exerc Sport 2002;73(1):66–72. doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2002.10608993
  22. LeSuer DA, McCormick JH, Mayhew JL, Wasserstein RL, Arnold MD. The accuracy of prediction equations for estimating 1-RM performance in the bench press, squat, and deadlift. J Strength Cond Res 1997;11:211–13. doi.org/10.1519/00124278-199711000-00001The published comparison that reproduces the Epley, Brzycki, Lander, Lombardi, Mayhew, O'Conner and Wathan equations. Several of those originate in coaching textbooks with no DOI; this paper is the citable record for them.
  23. Mandsager K, Harb S, Cremer P, Phelan D, Nissen SE, Jaber W. Association of cardiorespiratory fitness with long-term mortality among adults undergoing exercise treadmill testing. JAMA Netw Open 2018;1(6):e183605. doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.3605
  24. Mayhew JL, Ball TE, Arnold MD, Bowen JC. Relative muscular endurance performance as a predictor of bench press strength in college men and women. J Appl Sport Sci Res 1992;6:200–6. doi.org/10.1519/00124278-199211000-00002
  25. Pontzer H, Durazo-Arvizu R, Dugas LR, et al. Constrained total energy expenditure and metabolic adaptation to physical activity in adult humans. Curr Biol 2016;26:410–17. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.046Why calories burned in a session do not simply add to the day's total.
  26. Reynolds JM, Gordon TJ, Robergs RA. Prediction of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. J Strength Cond Res 2006;20:584–92. doi.org/10.1519/R-15304.1
  27. Richens B, Cleather DJ. The relationship between the number of repetitions performed at given intensities is different in endurance and strength trained athletes. Biol Sport 2014;31:157–61. doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1099047Why a percentage-of-1RM rep table is a starting point rather than a prescription.
  28. Ross R, Blair SN, Arena R, et al. Importance of assessing cardiorespiratory fitness in clinical practice: a case for fitness as a clinical vital sign. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2016;134(24):e653–99. doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000461
  29. Shcherbina A, Mattsson CM, Waggott D, et al. Accuracy in wrist-worn, sensor-based measurements of heart rate and energy expenditure in a diverse cohort. J Pers Med 2017;7:3. doi.org/10.3390/jpm7020003Heart rate was accurate; energy expenditure was not, on any device tested.
  30. Soares EMKVK, Silva R, da Cruz CJG, et al. Cooper's 12 minute run systematically underestimates VO2max in collegiate team sport athletes: validity and classification accuracy. Int J Exerc Sci 2026;19(2):2012. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13405666/
  31. Tanaka H, Monahan KD, Seals DR. Age-predicted maximal heart rate revisited. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:153–6. doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(00)01054-8Pooled 351 studies and added a laboratory validation. The regression did not differ between men and women.
  32. US Army. Army modifies body composition program, adopts waist-to-height ratio. Army News Service, 7 July 2026. www.army.mil/article/293753/army_modifies_body_composition_program_adopts_waist_to_height_ratio
  33. US Department of Defense. DoD Instruction 1308.03: DoD Physical Fitness and Body Composition Programs. www.esd.whs.mil/portals/54/documents/dd/issuances/dodi/130803p.pdfSets the floor and ceiling within which each service must set its body fat standard.
  34. US Department of the Army. Army Regulation 600-9: The Army Body Composition Program. www.army.mil/e2/downloads/rv7/r2/policydocs/r600_9.pdfAppendix B carries the height and weight screening tables and Table B-2, the maximum allowable body fat standards by age and sex.
  35. Uth N, Sørensen H, Overgaard K, Pedersen PK. Estimation of VO2max from the ratio between HRmax and HRrest: the Heart Rate Ratio Method. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004;91(1):111–15. doi.org/10.1007/s00421-003-0988-y
  36. Uth N. Gender difference in the proportionality factor between the mass specific VO2max and the ratio between HRmax and HRrest. Int J Sports Med 2005;26(9):763–7. doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-837443
  37. WHO. WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2020. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015128

Measurement and statistics (19)

Body surface area, reference methods that other estimates are validated against, measurement technique, and the numerical methods behind the percentile maths.

  1. Abramowitz M, Stegun IA (eds). Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. NBS Applied Mathematics Series 55. Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards, 1964. www.nist.gov/mathematics-statistics/handbook-mathematical-functions-abramowitz-and-stegunFormula 7.1.26 is the error-function approximation used to turn a z-score into a percentile.
  2. Bhutani S, Kahn E, Tasali E, Schoeller DA. Composition of two-week change in body weight under unrestricted free-living conditions. Physiol Rep 2017;5:e13336. doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13336Short-term weight change is mostly water and gut contents, not fat.
  3. Du Bois D, Du Bois EF. Clinical calorimetry: a formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 1916;17:863–71. doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1916.00080130010002The historical standard, derived from nine people.
  4. Foulis SA, Friedl KE, Spiering BA, et al. Body composition changes during 8 weeks of military training are not accurately captured by circumference-based assessments. Front Physiol 2023;14:1183836. doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1183836
  5. Gehan EA, George SL. Estimation of human body surface area from height and weight. Cancer Chemother Rep 1970;54:225–35. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5527019/Fitted on 401 direct measurements. The journal predates DOI assignment; the PubMed record is the stable one.
  6. Griggs JJ, Bohlke K, Balaban EP, et al. Appropriate systemic therapy dosing for obese adult patients with cancer: ASCO guideline update. J Clin Oncol 2021;39:2037–48. doi.org/10.1200/JCO.21.00471
  7. Haycock GB, Schwartz GJ, Wisotsky DH. Geometric method for measuring body surface area: a height–weight formula validated in infants, children and adults. J Pediatr 1978;93:62–6. doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80601-5
  8. Hume P, Marfell-Jones M. The importance of accurate site location for skinfold measurement. J Sports Sci 2008;26:1333–40. doi.org/10.1080/02640410802165707
  9. Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis, part I: review of principles and methods. Clin Nutr 2004;23:1226–43. doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2004.06.004
  10. Lang RM, Badano LP, Mor-Avi V, et al. Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2015;28:1–39. doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2014.10.003Where body surface area is used to index cardiac measurements.
  11. Mosteller RD. Simplified calculation of body-surface area. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1098. doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198710223171717
  12. Peterson MJ, Czerwinski SA, Siervogel RM. Development and validation of skinfold-thickness prediction equations with a 4-compartment model. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:1186–91. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1186
  13. Potter AW, Tharion WJ, Holden LD, Pazmino A, Looney DP, Friedl KE. Circumference-based predictions of body fat revisited: preliminary results from a US Marine Corps body composition survey. Front Physiol 2022;13:868627. doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2022.868627
  14. Sacco JJ, Botten J, Macbeth F, Bagust A, Clark P. The average body surface area of adult cancer patients in the UK: a multicentre retrospective study. PLoS One 2010;5:e8933. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008933
  15. Tinsley GM, Moore ML, Benavides ML, Dellinger JR, Adamson BT. 3-Dimensional optical scanning for body composition assessment: a 4-component model comparison of four commercially available scanners. Clin Nutr 2020;39:3160–7. doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2020.02.008
  16. Validation studies of the circumference-based military body fat equations published in Military Medicine. academic.oup.com/milmedCited on our body-fat methods guide as a body of validation work rather than a single indexed paper. We have no DOI for it, and the link is to the journal rather than to an article record.
  17. Verbraecken J, Van de Heyning P, De Backer W, Van Gaal L. Body surface area in normal-weight, overweight, and obese adults: a comparison study. Metabolism 2006;55:515–24. doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2005.11.004Quantifies how far the published body surface area formulas disagree with one another.
  18. Wagner DR. Ultrasound as a tool to assess body fat. J Obes 2013;2013:280713. doi.org/10.1155/2013/280713
  19. Wang Z, Deurenberg P, Wang W, Pietrobelli A, Baumgartner RN, Heymsfield SB. Multicomponent methods: evaluation of new and traditional soft tissue mass models. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:968–74. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/76.5.968

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